FORGING A ‘MARITIME IDENTITY’ FOR INDIA

Given that the next two centuries are widely acknowledged to be centuries of the seas and space, it is prudent to bear in mind that over the course of these two centuries, “India will either be a maritime and space power… or she will not be any kind of power at all”.[1]  This is not mere bombast, for India’s current and future prosperity are inextricably linked to the maritime domain.  90% of India’s external merchandise trade (by volume) and 67% (by value) is seaborne.[2]  India’s 12 major ports and 200-plus non-major ports constitute the Indian nodes of this external merchandise trade, connecting India to the world through International Shipping Lanes (ISLs) and, in times of tension or conflict, through our Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs).  Small wonder, then, that India has identified “port-led prosperity”[3] and “port-led industrialisation”[4] as truly viable pathways to realise the country’s aspiration to move from a three trillion US-dollar economy to a 30 trillion US-dollar one by 2047.[5]  Likewise, India’s food security is, in very significant measure, a direct function of the country’s fisheries sector, which plays “a vital role in addressing the rising global demand for an affordable quality source of protein….  India is the third largest fish-producing country in the world accounting for 8% of global production… [it] is the fourth largest exporter of fish and fisheries products, with a growth in exports of 26.73% in terms of quantity between FY 2021-22 and FY 2022-23… the sector supports the livelihood of over 30 million people in India.”[6]  Going forward, India’s multifaceted, yet intense, maritime endeavours to transition from its current model of a ‘brown economy’[7] to a ‘blue’ one,[8] once again underscores the deep connections between the seas and India’s economic, material, and societal well-being.

Consequently, it is essential to strive towards the creation, sustenance, and strengthening of what we might call “maritime India”.  This involves nurturing and fortifying India’s “maritime identity”.   Indeed, having a strong sense of “maritime identity” is a crucial prerequisite for the development of “maritime power”, even though it may not, in and of itself, be a sufficient condition for “maritime power”, which is the military, economic, and political ability to use the seas for one’s own purposes while simultaneously dissuading, deterring, and preventing others from using the seas in ways that are harmful to our own interests.[9]  In order to build a ‘maritime identity’, however, it is necessary to move from the general to the specific.  This requires that we first explore and understand the processes involved in the development and establishment of any given cultural identity.  This might serve to ease the somewhat Herculean endeavour that this article seeks to initiate.

 

What is ‘Cultural Identity’?

Identifying-with or feeling a sense of belonging to a particular group based on cultural categories — including nationality, ethnicity, race, gender, and religion — is termed ‘cultural identity’.[10]  Our sense of belonging to different identities comes from sharing collective knowledge such as traditions, history, language, styles, and customs.  Since most people are part of more than one cultural group, this makes our cultural identities a complex and multifaceted mix of influences.  Although scholars initially assumed “identification with cultural groups to be obvious and stable”,[11] most recognise it now to be “contextual and dependent upon temporal and spatial changes”,[12] implying that some identities may take precedence over others depending on the situation on-ground.  Moreover, in a world overrun by globalisation, it is no surprise that there has been an increase in the number of intercultural encounters and experiences, wherein identities — in particular, cultural identities— are “constantly enacted, negotiated, maintained, and challenged through communicative practices”.^[13]

 

Forging Cultural Identities

Until we engage in a close examination of history, it appears that some cultural identities which we often take for granted, seeming to have perpetually existed, actually came into existence for a variety of fairly specific socio-political reasons.[14]  These very cultural identities have changed and continue to evolve with the passage of time, and communication lies at the heart of their conception and construction.[15]  The theory of social constructionism suggests that knowledge is the end result of social processes,[16] and that “the self is formed through our interactions with others and in relationship to social, cultural, and political contexts.”[17]  So, how and why does the social constructionism theory matter in terms of cultural identities, and in turn, ‘maritime identity’?

In the context of cultural identity, social constructionism highlights how identities are not fixed or predetermined but are shaped by social interactions, historical contexts, power dynamics, and cultural norms.  In the establishment of cultural identities, cultural expressions are crucial.  They serve as the tangible manifestations of shared beliefs, values, traditions, and practices within a society or community, and can be thought of as the building blocks in the construction of a cultural identity.  Examples of tangible manifestations of cultural expressions include music, literature, poetry, art, architecture, dance, folklore, and films — all of which express cultural values, overtly or covertly.[18]  The following pointers elaborate on the manners in which cultural expressions are incorporated in the development of cultural identity.

• Symbolism and Representation: As mentioned above, cultural expressions often contain symbolic meanings that reflect the values, beliefs, and aspirations of a culture.  These symbols serve as important markers of identity, helping individuals and communities to express and reinforce their cultural affiliations.
• Identity Formation: Cultural expressions provide individuals with opportunities to explore, affirm, and negotiate their cultural identities.  Through participation in cultural activities and consumption of cultural products, individuals develop a sense of belonging and connection to their cultural heritage, as well as to broader social groups with whom they share common cultural traits.
• Interpersonal Communication: Cultural expressions serve as a medium for interpersonal communication and social interaction.  They enable individuals to communicate complex ideas, emotions, and experiences across cultural boundaries, fostering empathy, understanding, and solidarity among diverse communities.
• Community Cohesion: Cultural expressions play a crucial role in building and maintaining social cohesion within communities.  They provide shared experiences and rituals that strengthen social bonds, promote cooperation, and reinforce collective identities among group members.
• Adaptation and Innovation: Cultural expressions are syncretic and dynamic — constantly evolving, reflecting ongoing processes of adaptation, innovation, and hybridisation.  As societies encounter new influences and experiences, cultural expressions adapt to incorporate these changes while retaining core elements of cultural identity.
• Resistance and Empowerment: Cultural expressions can also serve as forms of resistance against dominant cultural norms, power structures, and forms of oppression.  Through creative expression, marginalised groups assert their agency, challenge stereotypes, and reclaim their cultural heritage, contributing to processes of empowerment and social change.
• Globalisation and Diversity: In an increasingly interconnected world, cultural expressions facilitate the exchange of ideas, values, and practices across cultures, contributing to cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue.  Globalised media, travel, and digital technologies enable individuals to engage with diverse cultural expressions from around the world, enriching their own cultural identities in the process.

 

At first glance, this approach towards constructing a cultural identity may appear — especially to naval and maritime practitioners — to be overly sociological and theoretical.  However, understanding the manner in which identities function in a society is one of the ways we can hope to build and leverage a ‘maritime identity’ for our country. So as to better understand what is meant by ‘maritime identity’, the next section investigates this term in greater depth.

 

Forging Maritime Identities

What is “Maritime Identity”?

Despite India’s historically and culturally rich maritime legacy, it is terribly unfortunate that a significant percentage of our populace is woefully unaware of the same.  It would, therefore, facilitate ease of understanding were we to probe what “maritime identity” might actually mean.  Although the expression “maritime identity” is sprinkled fairly liberally across several articles, papers, interviews, and other works of scholarship, the phrase per se is rarely defined.  Of the few actual definitions is by Henry Holst in his article, “Blue Means Blue: China’s Naval Ambitions”.  Holst states, “Maritime identity is a nation’s inherited maritime traditions, responsibilities, prerogatives, self-concept and strategic interests as a naval power.  It frames the strategic discussion that occurs at high levels of government and therefore wields enormous influence over foreign policy.”[19]  He stresses the roles that history, culture, national interests, and self-perception play in terms of shaping ‘maritime identity’, while also deeply impacting the nation’s foreign policy.  Having the potential to influence high-level strategic discussions, decisions about naval power, maritime interests, and consequently, “maritime identity”, ultimately have an impact on the manner in which a country interacts with others on the global stage.  Nevertheless, it is important to grasp the state-of-affairs within India prior to focussing on its foreign affairs, as the former shapes the latter.

India has nine coastal states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal) and four coastal union territories (Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu, Puducherry, Lakshadweep Islands, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands).  Given the country’s extensive coastline — which is in the process of being fixed at 11,084.50 km (and will shortly replace the far more familiar one of 7,516.6 km)[20] as well as the country’s maritime area of 3.22 million square kilometres (km²) — consisting of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million square kilometres[21] and the legal continental shelf of 1.2 million square kilometres [22] — it comes as no surprise that India’s coastal regions have a rich maritime heritage and culture.  Therefore, would it be too much of a stretch to suggest the possible existence of separate, region-specific ‘maritime identities’ in the coastal parts of India?

 

State-specific Maritime Identity?

1. Gujarat

Gujarat’s maritime legacy spans an epoch of some five millennia — across the regions of Kachchh, Kathiawar, and peninsular Gujarat — rooted in the ancient Harappan-Saraswati civilisation.  Lothal, possibly the world’s first drydock, is an example of the civilisation’s early maritime prowess.  Despite its eventual decline, maritime trade continually re-emerged, connecting Gujarat with the ancient civilisations of Sumer, Egypt, and Greece.  Texts such as the Mahabharata and the historical treatise Arthashastra, attest to Gujarat’s maritime significance, emphasising its role in ancient trade networks.[23]  Arab travellers from the 9^th century have praised Gujarat’s sea trade, which burgeoned with the Haj pilgrimage and the spread of Islam to the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.[24]  Surat, Diu, and Daman emerged as key ports during the colonial period, when colonial powers — consisting of the Dutch, French, Portuguese, and British — bolstered Gujarat’s prominence through extensive trade.

Gujarat is steeped in centuries of maritime heritage owing to (hereditary) seafaring communities such as the Memons, Kharawas, and Kolis, who passed down seafaring wisdom and navigational skills orally, and which was later documented in “handwritten seamen manuals called ‘pothis’ and diaries or ‘roznamas’ of individual voyages”[25] in the 15^th century.[26]

Post-Independence, ports such as Kandla revitalised Gujarat’s maritime economy.  The Scindia Steam and Navigation Company laid the foundations for Gujarat’s modern maritime industry even in the face of foreign competition.[27]  Today, as in the past, Gujarat’s extensive coastline of 1,214.70 km (soon to be revised to the newly measured length of 2,125.82 km), its strategically advantageous geography, and its pro-business environment, taken in aggregate, continue to propel its maritime aspirations, evident in developments like the ports of Mundra, Pipavav, and Kandla, as well as the numerous ship-recycling yards at Hazira and Alang.[28]  No small wonder, then, that the state of Gujarat has historically been “maritimely” inclined, with deep-rooted ties to the sea.

2. Maharashtra

The coastal belt of the Konkan is not confined to a single Indian coastal state but spans three of them, “from the state of Maharashtra to the southern part of the state of Karnataka”, [29] with a major portion being in Maharashtra.  This belt possesses a diverse mix of coastal communities that share a deeply intimate relationship with their most proximate environment — the sea.

Maharashtra, with its coastline of 652.60 (being revised to the newly measured length of 896.98 km) is home to several fishing communities, amongst which are the Koli, Bhoi, Bhandari, and Gabati, and tribes such as the Warli, Kokana, and Gond who fish using indigenous methods.[30]  They harvest a variety of fish, including Bombil (Bombay Duck), Halawa (black pomfret), Shingada (catfish), and Gada (dolphin),[31] as well as clams, mussels, and oysters.  These communities contribute to Maharashtra’s maritime identity through their fishing practices, cuisine, folklore, and Koli Geet folk songs that celebrate the fish and the sea.

The Bakhar — a Marathi historical narrative — not only details the initiatives of Maratha rulers and records their maritime influence as well as their dominance of the Konkan coast during the 17^th and 18^th centuries,[32] but also contains historical events from 1060 to 1500 CE of North Konkan where the Kolis are reported to have settled in 1138.[33]  Chhatrapati Shivaji established one of the earliest navies to safeguard his realm from maritime threats, bestowing distinct positions upon Kolis and Bhandaris “due to their knowledge of navigation”.[34]  Shivaji is also credited with pioneering the construction of numerous sea forts for Maratha defence — all of which was achieved with minimal technological resources.[35]  Admiral Kanhoji Angre, with his Maratha fleet, is celebrated for his naval prowess and skilful leadership while engaging with colonial powers.[36]

Maharashtra, hailed the “Gateway of India”, is “one of India’s largest commercial and industrial centres”.[37]  Major and non-major ports such as Mumbai, Nhava Sheva/ Jawaharlal Nehru Port Authority (JNPA), and Ratnagiri, continue to play crucial roles in trade, commerce, and logistics, connecting Maharashtra (and, in turn, India) to global maritime networks.  Maharashtra’s maritime identity is truly multifaceted, encompassing historical, cultural, and economic dimensions that highlight the coastal state’s enduring connection to the sea. 

3. Goa

Well-known for having been Portugal’s first territorial possession in Asia (in 1510, by Afonso de Albuquerque), Goa has a relatively short coastline of 101 km (the newly measured length is 181.48 km) but a long history of maritime trade, colonisation, and naval activities.  As a former Portuguese colony, it was a crucial hub of the maritime trade routes between Europe, Africa, and Asia during the Age of Discovery (lasting an entire century, from the mid-15^th century to the mid-16^th one).[38]  Goan sailors and navigators played significant roles in Portuguese maritime expeditions, contributing to the exploration and colonisation of new territories — including Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman, and Diu.[39]

 

Goan cuisine, architecture, language, and festivals, all stand eloquent testimony to its historical maritime connections, with strong influences from the Indian hinterland and their cultural blends with European, African, and Southeast Asian elements.[40]  Traditional occupations such as fishing and boatbuilding continue to thrive in coastal communities such as the Kharvis and Kolis,[41] thereby preserving Goa’s maritime heritage.

Mormugao Port in Goa handles significant cargo traffic, facilitating trade and commerce.  Fishing is a vital economic activity for many coastal communities in Goa, contributing to the state’s economy and providing livelihood for thousands of people.  Additionally, maritime tourism — incorporating a heady mix of beach tourism, coastal tourism, cruise-ship tourism, and water sports — attracts visitors from around the world, by virtue of the state’s stunning coastline along the Arabian Sea.  Indeed, Goa’s beaches, estuaries, and rivers are integral to its identity and contribute to its allure as a tourist destination.

 Thus, Goa’s connection to the sea is woven into the very fabric of its being.  History, culture, economics, and geography — all are threads spun by the ocean’s constant presence, tying Goa to the maritime world.

4. Karnataka

Karnataka has a 280 km-long coastline (soon to be revised to the newly measured length of 309.59 km) abutting the Arabian Sea and comprising sandy beaches, rocky shores, estuaries, and river deltas — all of which contribute towards the state’s tremendous biodiversity.

Karnataka’s rich maritime heritage dates back to ancient times.  The Vijayanagar Empire’s (1336–1646) control of ports on both coasts (west and east), ensured “opportunities for the acquisition of increased wealth”[42] through the ancient trade routes connecting the Indian subcontinent with civilisations in West Asia, Africa, and Southeast Asia.  Ports such as Mangalore (Mangaluru) and Karwar played a significant role in facilitating maritime trade and commerce during distinct historical periods and remain important even today.[43]  New Mangalore Port (NMPT) and Karwar Port, amongst others, are important hubs for cargo shipping, and handling various commodities such as iron ore, petroleum products, and agricultural goods.

Karnataka’s coastal communities — including the Bunts, Mogaveeras, amongst a host of others — have rich traditions, customs, and livelihoods.  These communities have preserved maritime traditions such as fishing, boatbuilding, and navigation, given that these remain integral to their collective cultural identity.  The fishing industry provides employment and sustenance to these coastal communities, while also contributing to Karnataka’s economy.  There is more than adequate historical evidence to show that as Indians, we need to take justifiable pride in the stirring exploits of the Tulu warrior queen, Rani Abbakka Chowta, who defeated a whole succession of Portuguese sailors, soldiers, and marines, whether operating singly or in cohort with local Indian chieftains.  This fighting spirit informs the maritime identity of coastal Karnataka even today.  It is a monumental shame that New Delhi’s location and obsession with Muslim and particularly Mughal history has denied contemporary India the much-needed awareness of this rich manifestation of the country’s maritime identity.  Within Karnataka, of course, her valour has been immortalised in stories retold from generation to generation through folk songs and yakshagana.[44]  Sadly, however, even at the state level, only recently have there been efforts to honour her memory.[45]

 The ocean, therefore, is not just a border for Karnataka, but crucial to the state’s identity.  From the historical significance of its ports to the vibrant cultures of its coastal communities, Karnataka’s connection to the sea goes well beyond geography.  Fishing villages, bustling ports, and thriving maritime industries all contribute to the rich tapestry of Karnataka’s importance as a coastal state.

5. Kerala

Hailed as the “Garden of Spices” in Sumerian records,[46] Kerala’s maritime trade and seafaring have a long history encompassing all of its 569.70 km of coastline (the newly measured length is 597.43 km).  The Chera dynasty was one among the triumvirate Tamilkam kingdoms (the other two being the Pandyas and the Cholas) that ruled over present-day Kerala.[47]  Sangam literature also has references to Chera chiefs “dated to the 1^st century CE”.[48]  Expectedly, the state has been a significant centre of trade and commerce for centuries, with ancient ports like Muziris (believed to be present-day Kodungallur) serving as important hubs for international trade with civilisations in West Asia, Europe, and East Asia.  Kerala’s maritime connections date back to ancient times, with evidence of trade with the Roman Empire, ancient Mesopotamia, and other civilisations.  Vasco da Gama — along with his crew — landed in Kozhikode (whose name had long been anglicised to ‘Calicut’) on 20 May 1498, having sought the help of a Gujarati pilot.[49]  The Portuguese sought to “open the sea route to Asia and to outflank the Muslims, who had hitherto enjoyed a monopoly of trade with India and other eastern states”.[50]

 Kerala’s connection to the sea is reflected in its traditions, festivals, cuisine, and arts.  Coastal communities such as the Mappilas, Thiyyas, and fisherfolk (including Arayans, Velans, Mukkuvas, and Marakkans)[51] have preserved maritime traditions such as fishing, boatbuilding, and navigation, all of which are integral to their cultural identity.  The ‘chundan vallam’ is a type of traditional and vintage wooden boat; an iconic symbol of Kerala’s maritime heritage, it is still used in boat races (called Vallam Kali) and religious festivals such as Onam.

 The state’s ports, fishing industry, maritime trade, and “rich marine wealth with a large variety of fish and a highly skilled population of fishermen have made Kerala a leading producer and consumer of fish”.[52]  Ports like Kochi (the anglicised name having been ‘Cochin’), Kozhikode (anglicised to ‘Calicut’), and Beypore, have historically been important centres of maritime commerce, handling trade in spices (such as cinnamon, pepper, cloves, and cardamom, amongst others), timber, coir, and other commodities.  Its economy is also deeply tied to maritime tourism, with its serene backwaters, scenic beaches, and traditional houseboats attracting tourists from around the world.

 It is obvious, therefore, that Kerala’s ties with the maritime domain are about as organic as can be, with its coastline, coastal communities, ports, and maritime activities collectively contributing towards the shaping of its maritime identity.

6. Tamil Nadu

The extensive coastline — 906.9 km, which will soon be revised to the newly measured length of 1064.98 km — of the state of Tamil Nadu runs along the northeastern segment of the Indian Ocean and, to a large extent, defines the southwestern limit of the Bay of Bengal.  It is characterised by sandy beaches, estuaries, and natural harbours, all of which provide ample opportunities for maritime activities.  As mentioned above, Tamilkam’s triumvirate — consisting of the Pandya, Chera, and Chola dynasties — ruled over southern India and Sri Lanka for several centuries, and contributed extensively towards the advancement of south Indian literature, art, and architecture.[53]  The Chola rulers conquered parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives in the 10^th century CE, thereby taking the empire to new heights.[54]  Moreover, the ancient Tamil kingdoms were home to several ancient ports like Poompuhar (modern-day Kaveripattinam) and Mamallapuram (contemporary Mahabalipuram), which were vital centres of trade and commerce with ancient civilisations such as Rome, Greece, China, and Southeast Asia.  Tamil Nadu’s maritime connections played a crucial role in the spread of Indian culture, language, and religion to other parts of the world.

 The state’s coastal communities such as the Paravars, Vedarars, and several assorted communities of fishermen, have preserved maritime traditions such as fishing, boatbuilding, and navigation — integral to their cultural identity.  Traditional fishing techniques, rituals associated with the sea (such as the placating of the sea goddess Gangaiyamman during the Pongal festival in Nambuthalai),[55] and festivals celebrating the bounty of the ocean are significant aspects of Tamil Nadu’s maritime culture.[56]

 The fishing industry is also a crucial economic activity, providing livelihoods to millions of fishermen and contributing significantly to Tamil Nadu’s economy.  Ports like Chennai, Tuticorin, and Ennore are major centres of maritime commerce, handling trade in goods like coal, iron ore, petroleum products, and containerised cargo.

 Tamil Nadu’s maritime tourism, with its scenic beaches, historic ports, and cultural heritage attracts tourists from around the world.  The maritime state’s identity is shaped by a confluence of factors: its extensive coastline, thriving coastal communities, bustling ports humming with activity, and cultural practices steeped in the seafaring way of life.

7. Andhra Pradesh

Situated along the southeastern coast of India, the state of Andhra Pradesh boasts a rich maritime heritage dating back centuries.  The state’s coastline stretches for 973.7 km (a figure soon to be revised to reflect the newly measured length of 1,272.58 km) along the Bay of Bengal, providing it with abundant marine resources and fostering a strong connection to maritime activities.

 Andhra Pradesh’s ports have historically played a crucial role in sustaining maritime trade and commerce, facilitating maritime interaction with civilisations across the Indian Ocean.  Evidence of Roman amphorae, Roman coins, and double-mast ship motif coins issued by Satavahana kings, amongst other artefacts, attests to the region’s contact with distant parts of the world.[57]  Even in the present day and age, the state’s ports contribute significantly to India’s maritime trade, handling cargo and facilitating imports and exports.  Visakhapatnam Port (also known as ‘Vizag’) and Kakinada Port, for instance, continue to be major hubs for maritime trade and fishing activities.  It is encouraging that Andhra Pradesh has consistently been paying attention to the development of its maritime infrastructure and capabilities, with initiatives such as port modernisation, coastal economic zones, and maritime education and research institutions.  These efforts underscore the state’s commitment to leveraging its maritime identity for economic growth and development.

Moreover, Andhra Pradesh’s strategic location makes it a key player in India’s maritime security and naval activities.  In the words of a former Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral R Harikumar, “Visakhapatnam, with its rich maritime history and tradition, has always had a profound connection with the Indian Navy. Being the strategic centre of gravity on the Eastern seaboard in the modern Indian maritime landscape today, Visakhapatnam has continued to serve as a beacon of [the] Indian Navy’s maritime will, intent and purpose.”[58] 

8. Odisha

Located on the eastern coast of India, Odisha has one of India’s richest maritime traditions that dates back millennia.  The state’s coastline of 476.4 km (which figure is being revised to the newly measured length of 667.12 km) along the Bay of Bengal has played a significant role in shaping its culture, economy, and history.  Odisha’s maritime heritage is deeply intertwined with trade, fishing, and maritime exploration.

The ancient ports of Odisha (or Kalinga as it was called in ancient times), such as Kalingapatnam, Puri, and Chilika, were important centres of maritime trade, connecting the region with other Indian kingdoms and those of Southeast Asia.  The discovery of as many as ten ports belonging to the Gupta period is particularly fascinating, along with evidence of Kalinga’s overseas trade with Southeast Asia, China, and the Roman World.[59]  Further advancements in terms of archaeological evidence are expected to provide an even clearer picture of Odisha’s incredibly rich maritime history.

 Odisha’s cultural practices, folklore, and festivals have a strong maritime inclination.  The week-long Bali Jatra festival, held on Kartik Purnima, “commemorates the past association of the people of Odisha with Bali and the glorious maritime tradition of transoceanic voyages they undertook to Southeast Asian Countries” on boitas (huge boats).[60]  The state’s coastal communities have a strong connection to the sea, with fishing being a major occupation for many.  Additionally, Odisha’s rich tradition of maritime art forms, such as the intricate work on Pattachitra (traditional cloth-based scroll painting), often depicts scenes from maritime life and mythology.

 The state continues to leverage its connection to the maritime realm for economic development through industries like fisheries, ports, and coastal tourism.  The state government of Odisha has also been actively promoting initiatives to harness the potential of its coastline for sustainable development and growth.

9. West Bengal

Although West Bengal has a deeply indented coastline of considerable length along the Bay of Bengal, it had been inadequately measured thus far.  With technology providing for far more accurate measurements, the erstwhile figure of 157.50 km that was thus far being used is being revised upwards to 662.9 km.  The Sundarbans — the world’s largest mangrove forest and a UNESCO World Heritage Site — is located in the southern part of the contemporary state, highlighting the significance of the maritime ecosystem to life in Bengal.

The state’s ancient port cities of Tamralipta (situated in the current Purba Medinipur district) and Saptagram (located on the banks of the Hooghly river),[61] were crucial for the Indian subcontinent’s overseas trade in cotton, silk, grains, and saltpetre, with Southeast Asia, Rome, and China.[62]  Sadhabas (seafaring merchants) undertook expeditions to Indonesia and Sri Lanka, resulting in the exchange of intellectual and cultural ideas.[63]

The European colonial period wrought several changes in the then undivided state of Bengal, transforming Kolkata (or Calcutta as it was then called) into the capital of British India, while also developing it into a critical port and shipbuilding centre.[64]

 The contemporary state’s major ports such as Kolkata and Haldia, as well as its numerous fishing harbours and coastal towns, underscore the continuing importance of West Bengal’s rivers and deltas, and of the sea itself.

 

Union-Territory-specific Maritime Identity?

Although the four coastal Union Territories (UTs), namely, (1) Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu; (2) Puducherry; (3) the Lakshadweep Islands; and (4) the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, all have the Indian Ocean as a common denominator, their maritime inclinations vary quite significantly.

1. Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu

Even as a consolidated entity, this UT has a very limited coastline (just 63.1 km) and is not traditionally known for maritime activities.  However, fishing and some maritime trade could contribute to the development of a local maritime identity.

2. Puducherry

Despite its limited coastline (just 42.11 km), Puducherry has historically maintained a strong connection with the sea, largely as a result of French colonial trade, and still boasts a well-developed fishing industry and a port.  This provides some evidence that the length of a coastline may not, in and of itself, be a particularly important determinant of maritime identity and, by corollary, even limited coastlines can, indeed, form the basis for a fairly intense maritime identity.

3. Lakshadweep Islands

The Lakshadweep chain is an archipelago with strong maritime roots.  Fishing and traditional boatbuilding are fairly central to the islanders’ way of life.  Tourism also relies heavily on the sea.  Lakshadweep’s maritime identity is likely the most well-defined amongst modern India’s Union Territories.

4. Andaman & Nicobar Islands

The Andaman & Nicobar Islands have a long history of indigenous seafaring communities.  Fishing and tourism are important economic activities.  The consolidated coastline of this UT had been poorly measured — an error that has now been rectified such that the originally promulgated length of 1,962 km has been remeasured to yield a consolidated coastline of 3,078.2 km — the longest of all the coastal states and UTs of modern India.  The strategic location of the islands also makes them crucial for contemporary India’s maritime security.  As may be expected, these islands possess a strong maritime identity.

 

 Maritime Identity of India as a Consolidated Geopolitical Entity

As seen in the previous section, each coastal state and Union Territory has varying degrees of maritime identity.  Yet, as the contrasting examples of West Bengal and Puducherry show, the length of coastline is not necessarily the sole or even the principal determinant of maritime identity.  Clearly, there is a need to sharpen our focus on the subject.  Indian naval captain, Ranendra Sawan, in his article “India’s Maritime Identity”, writes that the Government of India has much of the onus to “rebuild or reinforce the nation’s maritime identity”.[65]  To this end, it must be admitted that the Government of India has, indeed, taken a number of policy-level initiatives, including promulgation of the “Project SagarMala”, the “Maritime India Vision 2030” (MIV-2030) — which has subsumed the SagarMala programme within it, the more recent “Maritime Amrit Kaal Vision 2047” (MAKV 2047), and “Project Mausam”, all of which have sought to champion the maritime realm.[66]  Not to be forgotten are India’s maritime policy of “Security And Growth for All in the Region” (abbreviated to SAGAR), and the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) which lends first-order-specificity to SAGAR — both of which highlight New Delhi’s openness towards the seas.

However, while it certainly is the Government’s duty to enforce the nation’s maritime identity, this top-down approach has a limited contribution, whereby only those directly impacted or actively curious about affairs maritime will be “in the know”.  A layperson’s understanding of India’s maritime geography is often so poor as to cause him or her to think that the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal are waterbodies that are distinct from the Indian Ocean.

It appears necessary for the government’s “top-down” approach to be supplemented by a “bottom-up” approach that would forge a sense of ‘maritime consciousness’.  How might such a weighty endeavour be undertaken?  Strategies towards this end might include the following:

• Community-Engagement Programmes: Organise community events, workshops, and seminars in coastal regions to raise awareness about the importance of the maritime domain.  Encourage participation from local residents, fishermen, students, and youth to instil a sense of ownership and pride in maritime heritage.
• Educational Initiatives: Integrate maritime education into school curricula in coastal areas to familiarise students with maritime history, geography, and industries. Offer vocational training programmes in maritime skills such as fishing, boat building, navigation, and marine conservation to empower local communities and create employment opportunities.  Provide internships and/or courses at maritime-related institutions in order to disseminate information to (recent) graduates.
• Cultural Celebrations and Festivals: Organise maritime-themed festivals, cultural fairs, and exhibitions to showcase traditional maritime practices, arts, crafts, music, and cuisine. Encourage local artists, craftsmen, and performers to highlight maritime heritage through their creative expressions.
• Heritage Conservation: Preserve and promote maritime heritage sites, museums, lighthouses, and monuments along the coastlines. Develop heritage trails, interpretive centres, interactive exhibitions (like immersive art experiences), and guided tours to educate visitors and residents about the historical significance of maritime landmarks.
• Environmental Conservation: Foster environmental stewardship among coastal communities by promoting sustainable fishing practices, mangrove conservation, beach clean-up drives, and marine biodiversity conservation initiatives. Empower local stakeholders to become custodians of their coastal ecosystems and natural resources.
• Entrepreneurship and Innovation: Support grassroots entrepreneurship and innovation in the maritime sector by providing access to funding, mentorship, and technical assistance. Encourage startups and social enterprises focused on marine conservation, eco-tourism, renewable energy, and sustainable aquaculture.
• Youth Engagement and Leadership Development: Establish youth forums, clubs, and leadership programs to empower young people to become ambassadors for maritime awareness and advocacy. Encourage youth participation in maritime sports, expeditions, and volunteer projects to foster a sense of adventure and camaraderie.
• Digital Platforms and Media Outreach: Utilise digital platforms, social media, and multimedia channels to disseminate information, stories, and documentaries about maritime heritage, culture, and contemporary issues. Engage with influencers, bloggers, and content creators to reach wider audiences and spark conversations about the maritime domain.

 

Conclusion

India’s future is intrinsically, inextricably, and inevitably tied to the seas, which is why strengthening our (national) maritime identity is quite so crucial.  Should there be a genuine implementation of the aforementioned strategies, commencing with the nine coastal states and four coastal UTs, a maritime identity can definitely be fostered among the coastal peoples of India, which would be the first step in the project towards inculcating a maritime identity for the Indian populace at large.

****** 

Endnotes:

[1] Vice Admiral Pradeep Chauhan, “Geopolitics”, Lectures at the National Maritime Foundation, 04 March 2024.

[2] Government of India (Ministry of Ports, Shipping, and Waterways), “Maritime India Vision 2030”, 8 & 66, https://sagarmala.gov.in/sites/default/files/MIV%202030%20Report.pdf

[3] Government of India (Ministry of Ports, Shipping, and Waterways), “Sagarmala Programme” (Updated 24 April 2024), https://sagarmala.gov.in/projects/projects-under-sagarmala

[4]  Government of India (Ministry of Ports, Shipping, and Waterways), “Maritime Amrit Kaal Vision 2047” (MAKV 2047) https://shipmin.gov.in/sites/default/files/Maritime%20Amrit%20Kaal%20Vision%202047%20%28MAKV%202047%29_compressed_0.pdf

[5] Surojit Gupta, “India to become $30-trillion economy by 2047: Niti Draft Vision Document”, Times of India, 30 October 2023, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/30-trillion-economy-document-to-outline-reforms-pitch/articleshow/104806581.cms

[6] Deepti Thakur, “Fisheries & Aquaculture”, Invest India, https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/fisheries-aquaculture

[7] Richard Matthews, “Environmental Implications of Three Types of Economies: Brown, Blue and Green”, in Economics, https://changeoracle.com/2022/06/03/environmental-implications-of-three/

[8] Government of India, Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister, “India’s Blue Economy: A Draft Policy Framework”, https://incois.gov.in/documents/Blue_Economy_policy.pdf

[9] Vice Admiral Pradeep Chauhan and Captain Gurpreet Khurana, “National Maritime Power: Concepts, Constituents and Catalysts, Pentagon Press, New Delhi, 30 October 2018, 14.

See Also: Vice Admiral Pradeep Chauhan, “Defending the Aircraft Carrier”, Journal of the Centre for Air Power Studies, Vol 9 of 2022, https://capsindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Pradeep-Chauhan.pdf

[10] Vivian Hsueh-Hua Chen, “Key Concepts in Intercultural Dialogue: Cultural Identity,” Center for Intercultural Dialogue, no. 22 (2014), https://centerforinterculturaldialogue.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/key-concept-cultural-identity.pdf.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Ibid.

[13] Ibid.

[14] Tammera Stokes Rice, “1.3: Social Construction of Cultural Identity,” LibreTexts Social Sciences (LibreTexts, May 29, 2020), https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Intercultural_Communication/Communications_256%3A_Intercultural_Communication/01%3A_Chapters/1.03%3A_Social_Construction_of_Cultural_Identity.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Brenda J Allen, “Social Constructionism,” in Engaging Organizational Communication Theory & Research: Multiple Perspectives, ed. Steve May and Dennis K Mumby (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc., 2005), 35–54.

[17] Tammera Stokes Rice, “1.3: Social Construction of Cultural Identity”.

[18] Minnesota State University, “Major Traits of a Culture.” Presentation.

[19] Henry Holst, “Blue Means Blue: China’s Naval Ambitions,” The Diplomat, January 7, 2014, https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/blue-means-blue-chinas-naval-ambitions/.

[20] Vice Admiral Pradeep Chauhan, “Geopolitics.”

[21]Ibid.

[22] Ibid.

[23] Commander Ashish Kale, “Maritime Gujarat: Vibrant History and Promising Future,” Salute, February 17, 2016, https://salute.co.in/maritime-gujarat-vibrant-history-and-promising-future/.

[24] Ibid.

[25] Ibid.

[26] Ibid.

[27] Ibid.

[28] Commodore Debesh Lahiri and Ms Ayushi Srivastava, “Sustainable Ship Recycling in India – Social, Technological and Environmental Analysis”, https://maritimeindia.org/sustainable-ship-recycling-in-india-social-technological-and-environmental-analysis/

[29] Shubham Mandavgane, “Traditional Knowledge of Coastal Communities in Maharashtra,” Wildlife Conservation Society – India, February 28, 2024, https://india.wcs.org/Newsroom/Blog/ID/22074/Traditional-Knowledge-of-Coastal-Communities-in-Maharashtra.

[30] Pranita Harad, “Fish and Fisheries in Marathi Folklore: A Cultural Study,” Animals in Archaeology: Integrating Landscapes, Environment and Humans in South Asia 2 (2023): 723–39, http://www.heritageuniversityofkerala.com/Publications/P1/38_Harad_PPJ_20230202.pdf.

[31] Ibid. p 731.

[32] Maritime History Society, “The Maritime Records,” Maritime History Society, July 7, 2023, https://mhsindia.org/all/the-maritime-records/209937/.

[33] Neeta Khandpekar, “India’s Maritime History: Sea-faring groups and Maritime Icons,” 2018.

[34] Ibid.

[35] Maritime History Society, “The Maritime Records”, https://mhsindia.org/all/the-maritime-records/209937/

[36] Neeta Khandpekar, “India’s Maritime History: Sea-faring groups and Maritime Icons”.

[37] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “What Is Maharashtra Famous For?,” www.britannica.com, n.d., https://www.britannica.com/question/What-is-Maharashtra-famous-for#:~:text=Maharashtra%20is%20one%20of%20India.

[38] Jean Brown Mitchell, “European Exploration – the Age of Discovery,” in Encyclopaedia Britannica, May 30, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-exploration/The-Age-of-Discovery.

[39] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Portuguese India,” in Encyclopaedia Britannica, June 20, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/place/Portuguese-India.

[40] Incredible India!, “Goa: The Ultimate Getaway,” Google Arts & Culture (Google, n.d.), https://artsandculture.google.com/story/goa-the-ultimate-getaway-incredibleindia/pwXhrnVqEM2nJg?hl=en.

[41] Prajal Sakhardande, “Heritage and History of Goa,” Directorate of Art and Culture (Government of Goa, India, November 2011), https://www.artandculture.goa.gov.in/en/art-culture/heritage-and-history-of-goa.

[42] Philip B Calkins and R Champakalakshmi, “India – the Vijayanagar Empire, 1336–1646,” in Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d., https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646.

[43] Bharath Bhat, “Kanara: A Brief History of Its Culture, Maritime Trade and Wars (12th -19th Century),” Medium, December 27, 2020, https://bharathpm.medium.com/kanara-a-brief-history-of-its-culture-maritime-trade-and-wars-12th-19th-century-20b956dc86f0.

[44] Elaborate (folk) dance-drama performances unique to Karnataka, especially popular in coastal Karnataka districts.

[45] Kailash Kumar Mishra, “Abbakka Rani: The Unsung Warrior Queen,” Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India, n.d.), https://ignca.gov.in/abbakka-rani-the-unsung-warrior-queen/.

[46] Deepa Thomas, “Amazing Stories of Kerala Maritime History: India- Kerala Spice Tourism,” Tyndis Heritage, February 16, 2020, https://www.tyndistravel.com/the-amazing-stories-of-kerala-maritime-history.

[47] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Cera Dynasty | India,” in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cera-dynasty.

[48] Ibid.

[49] Eila M.J. Campbell and Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, “Vasco Da Gama | Biography, Achievements, & Facts,” in Encyclopaedia Britannica, December 20, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vasco-da-Gama.

[50] Ibid.

[51] Aarti Kelkar-Khambete, “Traditional Fisherfolk of Kerala – an Article about Their Socio-Economic Organisation and the Special Relationship They Share with the Sea and the Environment,” India Water Portal, August 13, 2012, https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/traditional-fisherfolk-kerala-article-about-their-socio-economic-organisation-and-special.

See also:
Mathew Aerthayil, “Chapter III: The Traditional Fishworkers of Kerala,” In: Fishworker’s Movement in Kerala (1977-1994)- The Role of Non-Party Political organisations in Social Transformation in India, 2000, New Delhi, Indian Social Institute. p 13-21

[52] Ibid.

See also:
Mathew Aerthayil, “Chapter II: The Background of Kerala,” In: Fishworker’s Movement in Kerala (1977-1994)- The Role of Non-Party Political organisations in Social Transformation in India, 2000, New Delhi, Indian Social Institute. p 13-21

[53] National Geographic Society, “Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam,” National Geographic, 2023, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/three-crowned-kings-tamilakam/.

[54] Ibid.

[55] Maarten Bavinck. “Placating the Sea Goddess: Analysis of a Fisher Ritual in Tamil Nadu, India.” Etnofoor 27, no. 1 (2015): 89–100. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43410672.

[56] Sangam literature is the earliest surviving Tamil literature, likely composed around 300 BCE to 300 CE, which offers a window into ancient South India.  Quite a few writings contain references to the sea, highlighting the region’s dependence on the maritime realm.

[57] Sila Tripati, “Maritime History of Andhra Pradesh and Prospects for Marine Archaeological Research,” Riches of Indian Archaeological and Cultural Studies, 2006, 108–21, https://drs.nio.res.in/drs/bitstream/handle/2264/124/AP-IKS%20Vol-%281%29%202006.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

[58] The Hindu Bureau, “Maritime Events Enhance Visakhapatnam’s Image at Global Level; Union Minister Ajay Bhatt,” The Hindu, February 22, 2024, sec. Visakhapatnam, https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/maritime-events-enhance-visakhapatnams-image-at-global-level-union-minister-ajay-bhatt/article67875959.ece.

[59] Balaram Tripathy, “Maritime Heritage of Orissa,” Orissa Review, 2007, https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissareview/nov-2007/engpdf/November.pdf#page=27.

[60] Rabindra Nath Dash, “Baliyatra: A Festival of Odisha’s Ancient Maritime Trade,” Odisha Review, November 2017, https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2017/November/engpdf/baliyatra.pdf.

[61] As a result of a shift in the Hooghly’s course, the once prosperous Saptagram has been reduced to mere hamlets.

[62] Marex Media, “Maritime Bharat – West Bengal,” Marex Media, November 20, 2023, https://marexmedia.com/2023/11/20/maritime-bharat-west-bengal/.

[63] Ibid.

[64] Ibid.

[65] Captain Ranendra Sawan, “India’s Maritime Identity,” National Maritime Foundation, January 18, 2023, https://maritimeindia.org/indias-maritime-identity/.

[66] Ibid.